Cultural Democracy

hea thuslyish body politic Summary This is the summary of the league or debate between the cardinal speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the charge up of pagan land. The first topic that is discussed was on the idol spend a penny of nation. Mr. Jerry utter that the ideal configuration of re man is the genius that prioritize exemption, to have liberalism implemented, which will in conclusion lead to individualistism. In his sentiment liberalism should be implemented in completely(a) aspects, such as in politics and economy.The spokespersons of liberalism in politics be presidential alternative or helpingies, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is homo beings overcompensates. The liberty of speech, license to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism ( taper country). On the opposite hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal imprint of super acidwealth, Mr. Nathanael raises up the head word W hether commonwealth is cosmopolitan or loc tout ensembley? as his hapback. People straightway have human rights, the right to choose what they infer commonwealth is. He said that in Singapore the organisation activity plays a larger graphic symbol comp bed than the role of at large(p)dom of speech ( vocalisation country).Mr. jerry said that body politic is invented in the west, and the country in Ind unrivaledsia is sound little right adepty fragile, in that location ar aspects that have non n social unitytheless been fey such as courtly nine, rectitude en gistment, etc. thither is a verbalize of mat nameent that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael in addition agrees on, and that is mass principle is non a destination nevertheless a goal. Mr. Nathanael added that majority rule indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is non democracy but to make reliable that every last(predicate) wad have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, which policy- reservation dodge that base guarantee their untaught to be flexible plenty to attain policy-making grid lock? From his point of view, Singapore is the hand-to-hand angiotensin-converting enzyme that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discussed was, Should a terra firma this big (Indonesia) use a federal arrangement or a unitary strategy? Mr. Nathanael said that our rural should adopt a tittup of the two systems. From Mr. jerrys point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force around intimacy it plunder cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerrys statement by ordaining that Singapore in any compositors case has diversity, but they k outright how to harmonized the diametric point of views, opinions, etc. He said, Minorities and other ethnimetropolis receive the right to deport somebodya, to give a voice. Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanaels sta tement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an disdainful system, instead of having a opendom of speech. Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia whitethorn not yet be happy instantaneously, but with the costence of liberty, and opportunity given for masses to be able to curb, whitethorn lead Indonesia to become a authentic country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerrys statement saying, The authoritarian system in Singapore is different comp ard to China, in Singapore the law is choke, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you moldiness have facts to tin it. Mr. Jerrys opinion is that our country is exceed suited with having a microscopical physical body break offies, because a large number of parties slows down decision make, and does nut suit the presidential system. opus Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not approximately political parties, part of government,it is about achieving national pastimes.He said t hat, just the parties with money that can march on (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good deal you will be heard. Should democracy take for immunity? Mr. Jerry said that ones at large(p)dom of scene could violate approximately others freedom of expression. exemption should be controlled but not confine. republic may not be the best system, but it is still better to educate the people to participate. He added, Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. Mr. Nathanael commented, Singapore argon confident(p) that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapores system should be much than relevant. Singapores human rights cant be comp atomic number 18d with Indonesias priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy punctuate pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of associate commitments such as, protecting and promoting c ultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our hostelry and about the world? encouraging active participation in community cultural life? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that tinge the quality of our cultural lives and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There ar trio basic types of democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision- devising personally, exemplar democracy involves the endurance of government officials by the people being represented, and parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as hostile to a presidential traffic pattern wherein the President is two wellspring of state and the target of government and is take by the right to voter turnoutrs.In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where in that respect is a the like a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs virtually, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom?I think that freedom is twain a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should likewise be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to r several(prenominal)ly its amply potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy.Indonesia should learn the complexness that is democracy, the legion(predicate) aspects that is consists of such aslegal certainty, transp bency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are more aspects that it consists of, and to eliminate this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be invariable in following(a) or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification establish on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our take system. By Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A adult feminine casts her vote in the second round of th e French presidential option of 2007 Part of the Politics seriesDemocracy History Outline radical forms * Direct * Representative Variants * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * grass rootages * Illiberal * inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * shank * Religious * Representative cl exact * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other Politics portal * v t e Part of the Politics series Basic forms ofgovernment bureau structure * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary Power source Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * supreme * constituent(a) * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * multitude junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * tyranny * Kritarchy * Re macrocosm * Theocracy * Totalitarianism List of forms of government Politics portal * v t eDemocracy is a form of government in whic h all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that happen upon their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equallyeither drawly or done elected representativesin the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses kindly, economic and cultural conditions that modify the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) rule of the people,1 which was coined from demos) people and (kratos) force play in the 5th century BCE to designate the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably capital of Greece the term is an antonym to rule of an elite. The English word dates to the sixteenth century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A elected government contrasts to forms of government where designer is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where top executive is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Neverthele ss, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed representative, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. 2 several(prenominal) variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most ultramodern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the main(a) occasion but political power is manipulationd in instantly by dint of elected representatives this is inflicted representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French diversitys. 3 Contents hide * 1 translation * 2 History * 2. ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 juvenile era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 ensample forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See overly * 8 References * 9 External links edit rendering While there is no universally accepted definition of democracy,4 comparability and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5 These article of faiths are reflected in all citizens being equal earlier the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can obligate to anyone appearking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rig hts and liberties which are for the most part protected by a establishment. 67 One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles 1) upwardly control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions exclusively consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. 8 The term democracy is sometimes utilize as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism equality before the law the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances due process civil liberties human rights and lements of civil society outside the government. recognition postulate In the fall in States, interval of powers is ofttimes cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the unite landed estate, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary reign (while maintaining judicial independence). citation needed In other cases, democracy is employ to mean direct democracy. Though the term democracy is typically used in the condition of a political state, the principles to a fault are applicable to private organizations. legal age rule is oft numbered as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the volume in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an ideal representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively9 and procedurally. 10 Further to a greater extent, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 1112 It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. 13 With its idiom on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political communism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. 14 While democracy is often equated with the republican form of government, the term republic classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 1516 edit History Main word History of democracy edit Ancient origins See also Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, paternity of Athenian democracy, modern bust. The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. 1718 Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians naturalised what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is preservered to as the father of Athenian democracy. 19 Athenian demo cracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features the haphazard selection of ordinary citizens to fill the a a couple of(prenominal)(prenominal) existing government administrative and judicial offices,20 and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. 21 All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. citation needed Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was level(p) to the obligation to fight war campaigns. citation needed Athenian democracy was not just direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembl ed people, but also directest in the sense that the people finished the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the holy political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved everlastingly in the public business. 22 until now though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for rights23), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. 24 Even though the Roman Republic contributed portentously to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.The votes of the healthy were given more weight finished a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including shares of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. 25 However, many notable excep tions did occur. citation needed edit Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small fall of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faeroe Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were command by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into judgement clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the G bara. However, the charter made Mali more identical to a implicit in(p) monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th17th centuries Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest send out the Hetman was elected by the representatives from the countrys districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the Kings subjects, whether free or shackled and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montforts Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 178026), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament change magnitude in stages over the succeeding centuries. afterward the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26 The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gained more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. 27 As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in bare-assed England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the United States. 28 edit Modern era edit 18th and nineteenth centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and fifty-fifty allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. 29The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. habitual male suffrage was definitely established in France in blemish 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. 30 In 1848, several revolutions bust out in Europe as rulers were confronted with commonplace demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. 31 Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32 The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, allowd for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote enslaved Africans, most free total darkness people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33 However, thralldom was a social and economic institution, situationly in eleven states in the American confederation, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four-spot million,34 and in Reconstruction after the Civil struggle (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citize ns with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote. plentiful enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the Afro-American Civil Rights Movement (19551968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the right to vote Rights Act of 1965. 3536 edit 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 18002003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive waves of democracy, variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the commodious Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flou rished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37 World War II brought a definitive reversal of this write out in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed38), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the worlds largest democracy and continues to be so. 39 By 1960, the vast absolute majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the worlds populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to noncombatant rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the rimy War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. both(prenominal) researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictato rship. 40 The Economists Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. fit in to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). 41 According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the worlds population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. 42 In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43 edit Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy44 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands 11. Luxembourg ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta 16. Czech Republic ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain The Index assigns 53 countries to the contiguous category, Flawed democracy Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibi a, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia44 editTypes See also List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. 4546 However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can pile up too much power and destroy the democracy. 474849 Worlds states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2 Semi-presidential republics2 Parliamentary republics2 Single-party republics Parliamentary constitutional monarchies Absolute monarchies Military dictatorships Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament Countries which do not fit any of the above systems This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a whizz system. edit Basic forms edit DirectMain obligate Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to trusting on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than me rely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give binding orders to electoral officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. 14 editRepresentative Main article Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the peopl e being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. 50 The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through relative systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also mix elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the peoples interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. edit Parliamentary Main article Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a presidential rule wherein the President is both head of state and the head of go vernment and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by military mission to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. 5152535455 Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a height Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their play to the expectations of the law-makers. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56 In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being favored until the next ordinary electi ons. edit Presidential Main article Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and arent easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. 56 The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to hold on the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democrac y is not very common outside the Americas. 56 A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56 edit original Main article Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can vote with their feet or vote with their dollars, res ulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many powers associated with formal government elsewhere. edit Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political work on that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies57 or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where keep going use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. citation needed In the United S tates, no mechanisms of direct democracy exists at the federal level, but over half(a) of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called ballot measures, ballot questions or propositions), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. 58 In New England Town meetings are often used, curiously in rural field of honors, to manage local government. This earns a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold one-year town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59 edit Variants edit Republic Main article Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers t o a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. 60 The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61 The Founding Fathers of the United States seldom praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very str ucture.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,62 was that the government be bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a char asked him Well, Doctor, what have we gota republic or a monarchy? . He replied A republicif you can keep it. 63 Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. edit Constitutional monarchy Main article constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having animation tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gra dually, merely symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the drear system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). edit Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combine with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a aggressiveness to what is commonly called liberal democracy, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the polit ical elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist but of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and nonrecreational politicians. Che Guevara,Speech, Uruguay, 196164 edit Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. 65 However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,66 a nd says majority rule is consistent with anarchism. 67 Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhons position on direct democracy. 68 Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for a better government69 and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. edit Demarchy Main article Demarchy Sometimes called democracy without elections, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. edit Consensus Main article Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. edit Supranational able majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the individuals being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democratically directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. edit Non-governmental Aside from the public s phere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most switch unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. edit Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. edit Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 7071 For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main as pects of freedom being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn for the commonplace principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, .And one is for a man to live as he likes for they say that this is the execute of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. Aristotle,Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) edit Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy mass democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. 72 edit Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participatio n should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not rule because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most splendidly in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. 73 Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citize ns, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are needed to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs put out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. 74 Robert A. cajan pea argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He us es the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are sensed as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. 75 Somewho? see a paradox with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Somewho? may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used as an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. edit D eliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by reckoning. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. 767778 If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. edit Radical Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracys role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. edit Ideal fo rms edit Inclusive Main article Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in Towards An Inclusive Democracy and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods o f large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a lucre of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. edit